Abnormal Psy, Discussion, real life example and responce

Abnormal Psy, Discussion, real life example and responce
Sample Answer for Abnormal Psy, Discussion, real life example and responce Included After Question

Abnormal Psy, Discussion, real life example and responce

Anxiety and Fear

• What distinguishes fear from anxiety? – FEAR is the body’s response to a serious threat to one’s well-being

– ANXIETY is the body’s response to a vague sense of being in danger

• How are they alike?

– Both have the same physiological features and prepare us for action

• increase in respiration, perspiration, muscle tension, and others

Abnormal Psy, Discussion, real life example and responce

• Dinthesis- stress • State anxiety is temp. Anxiety Disorders • Most common mental disorders in the U.S. • In any given year, 18% of the adult U.S. population experiences one of the anxiety disorders identified in DSM-5 • Close to 29% develop one of the disorders at some point in their lives; only one-fifth of these individuals seek treatment • Most individuals with one anxiety disorder also suffer from a second one Anxiety Disorders and OCD • DSM-5 Anxiety Disorders: identify unique traits – – – – – Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) Phobias Agoraphobia Social anxiety disorder Panic disorder • Anxiety also play major role in different group of problems – Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and obsessive-compulsive related disorders Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) • Common in Western society • Usually first appears in childhood or adolescence • Women diagnosed more often than men (2:1) • About one-fourth in treatment • Variety of theoretical explanations • Benzodiazepinesmedication Does Anxiety Beget Anxiety? • People with one anxiety disorder usually experience another as well, either simultaneously or at another point in their lives. (Adapted from Merikangas & Swanson, 2010; Ruscio et al., 2007; Hunt & Andrews, 1995.) According to the Sociocultural Perspective • GAD most likely to develop in people – Who face ongoing, dangerous societal conditions – Who live in poverty – Who face discrimination, low income, and reduced job opportunities (race) • Although poverty and other social pressures impact GAD, other factors are clearly at work – Most people living in dangerous environments do not develop GAD – Other models attempt to explain why some people develop the disorder and others do not Eye on Culture According to the Psychodynamic Perspective—- exam • Psychodynamic explanations: When childhood anxiety goes unresolved – Freud “EGO” • Excessive childhood neurotic or moral anxiety sets stage for GAD • Ego defense mechanisms may be too weak to cope with anxiety levels.: repression • Early attachment is key – Contemporary psychodynamic theorists • Disagree with specific aspects of Freudian explanation of GAD, but agree disorder may be traced to inadequacies in early parent-child relationships According to the Psychodynamic Perspective • Psychodynamic Therapies – General techniques • Used to treat all psychological problems and include free association, transference, resistance, and dreams • Specific treatments for GAD – OBJECT-RELATIONS THERAPISTS attempt to help patients identify and settle early relationship problems. Attachment theory – Freudians focus less on fear and more on control of id • Controlled studies have typically found psychodynamic treatments to only modest help to persons with GAD – Short-term psychodynamic therapy may be the exception to this trend According to the Humanistic Perspective • Theorists propose that GAD, like other psychological disorders – Arises when people stop looking at themselves honestly and acceptingly • This view is best illustrated by Carl Rogers – Lack of “unconditional positive regard” in childhood leads to “conditions of worth” (harsh self-standards) – Threatening self-judgments break through and cause anxiety, setting the stage for GAD to develop According to the Humanistic Perspective • Practitioners using this “CLIENT-CENTERED” approach try to show UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD for their clients and to empathize with them – Despite optimistic case reports, controlled studies have failed to offer strong support – In addition, only limited support has been found for Rogers’s explanation of GAD and other forms of abnormal behavior According to the Cognitive Perspective • Psychological problems are often caused by dysfunctional ways of thinking – including excessive worry • MALADAPTIVE ASSUMPTIONS – Albert Ellis: Basic irrational assumptions occur when people are guided by irrational beliefs that lead to inappropriate actions and reactions – Aaron Beck: People with GAD hold silent assumptions • Research supports that people with GAD hold maladaptive assumptions, particularly about dangerousness According to the Cognitive Perspective: New Wave Cognitive Explanations METACOGNITIVE THEORY • Developed by Adrian Wells: Suggests that the most problematic assumptions in GAD are the individual’s worry about worrying (METAWORRY) INTOLERANCE OF UNCERTAINTY THEORY • Certain individuals consider it unacceptable that negative events may occur, even if the possibility is very small; they worry in an effort to find “correct” solutions AVOIDANCE THEORY • Developed by Borkovec; holds that worrying serves a “positive” function for those with GAD by reducing unusually high levels of bodily arousal FEARS, SHMEARS: THE ODDS ARE USUALLY ON OUR SIDE Millions of people worry about disaster every day— but what are the odds commonly feared events will happen? Check out information on page 103 of your text to see the probability of fears you may hold. Are the odds in your favor? How Long Do Your Worries Last? • In one survey, 62 percent of college students said they spend less than 10 minutes at a time worrying about 20 percent worry (Adapted from Tallis et al., 1994.) According to the Cognitive Perspective • Breaking down worrying – Clients educated about role of worrying in GAD; taught to observe their bodily arousal and cognitive responses across life situations; become increasingly skilled at identifying their reactions; and ideally adopt more constructive ways of coping, and to worry less • Research has begun to indicate that a concentrated focus on worrying is a helpful addition to traditional cognitive therapy – This approach is similar TO MINDFULNESS-BASED COGNITIVE therapy According to the Biological Perspective • Biological theorists believe that GAD is caused primarily by biological factors – Supported by family pedigree studies • Biological relatives more likely to have GAD (~15%) than general population • The closer the relative, the greater the likelihood – There is, however, a competing explanation of shared environment involving GABA inactivity According to the Biological Perspective • Promising (but problematic) explanation – Recent research has complicated the picture: • Other neurotransmitters may play important roles in anxiety and GAD – Issue of causal relationships • Do physiological events CAUSE anxiety? How can we know? What are alternative explanations? The Biology of Anxiety • The circuit in the brain that helps produce anxiety reactions includes areas such as the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex. According to the Biological Perspective • GABA inactivity – 1950s: Benzodiazepines (Valium, Xanax) found to reduce anxiety • Neurons have specific receptors • Benzodiazepine receptors ordinarily receive gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA, a common neurotransmitter in the brain) • GABA carries inhibitory messages; when received, it causes a neuron to stop firing According to the Biological Perspective Biological treatments Relaxation training • Antianxiety drug therapy • Early 1950s: SEDATIVEHYPNOTIC drugs • Late 1950s: BENZODIAZEPINES • More recently: ANTIDEPRESSANT and ANTIPSYCHOTIC MEDICATIONS • Physical relaxation will lead to psychological relaxation • Research indicates that relaxation training is more effective than placebo or no treatment • Best when used in combination with cognitive therapy or biofeedback According to the Biological Perspectives • Biological treatments – Biofeedback • Therapist uses electrical signals from the body to train people to control physiological processes • Electromyograph (EMG) is the most widely used; provides feedback about muscle tension • Found to have a modest effect but has its greatest impact when used as an adjunct to other methods for treatment of certain medical problems (headache, back pain, etc.) Biofeedback at Work This biofeedback system records tension in the forehead muscle of an anxious person. The system receives, amplifies, converts, and displays information about the tension, allowing the client to “observe” it and to try to reduce his tension responses. Phobias • Phobias – Persistent and unreasonable fears of particular objects, activities, or situations – Often involves avoidance of the object or thoughts about it • Most phobias – Technically fall under the category of SPECIFIC PHOBIAS: DSM-5’s label for an intense and persistent fear of a specific object or situation. Phobias • How do such common fears differ from phobias? – More intense and persistent fear – Greater desire to avoid the feared object or situation – Distress that interferes with functioning Phobias • Most phobias technically are categorized as “SPECIFIC” – There is also a broader kind of phobia called “agoraphobia” Specific Phobias • Most common – Phobias of specific animals or insects, heights, thunderstorms, and blood • Impact of specific phobias – Dependent on what arouses the fear – Most people do not seek treatment Specific Phobias • Prevalence • Each year close to 9% of all people in the U.S. have symptoms of specific phobia • More than 12% develop such phobias at some point in their lives • Many suffer from more than one phobia at a time • Women outnumber men at least 2:1 • Prevalence differs across racial and ethnic minority groups; the reason is unclear Agoraphobia • Many people with agoraphobia avoid crowded places, driving, and public transportation • Many also are prone to experience extreme and sudden explosions of fear – called “PANIC ATTACKS” – and may receive a second diagnosis of panic disorder What Causes Phobias? • Each model offers explanations, but evidence tends to support the behavioral explanations – Phobias develop through – CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – MODELING (observation and imitation) – STIMULUS GENERALIZATION What Causes Phobias? • Behavioral explanations have received some empirical support: • Classical conditioning study involving Little Albert • Modeling studies: Bandura, confederates, buzz, and shock • Although it appears that a phobia can be acquired in these ways, researchers have not established that the disorder is ordinarily acquired in this way What Causes Phobias? • A behavioral-evolutionary explanation – Called “PREPAREDNESS” because human beings are theoretically more “prepared” to acquire some phobias than others – Explains why some phobias are more common than others How Are Specific Phobias Treated? • Each model offers treatment approaches but major behavioral techniques are most widely used • EXPOSURE TREATMENTS – SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION (Joseph Wolpe) – IN VIVO DESENSITIZATION • Other treatments – FLOODING – MODELING How Are Specific Phobias Treated? • Clinical research supports each of these treatments • The key to success is actual contact with the feared object or situation • A growing number of therapists are using virtual reality as a useful exposure tool PHOBIAS, FAMILIAR AND NOT SO FAMILIAR How many phobias can you name? Did you include pogonophobia, anthophobia, or phonophobia? If so, watch out for any loudtalking, bearded man carrying flowers you meet! More phobias may be found on page 115. How Is Agoraphobia Treated? • Behavioral therapy with an EXPOSURE APPROACH is the most common and effective treatment for agoraphobia • Therapists help clients venture farther and farther from their homes to confront the outside world • Therapists use techniques similar to those used for treating specific phobia but, in addition, use support groups and home-based self-help programs How Is Agoraphobia Treated? • Treatment Impact – Between 60-80% of clients with agoraphobia who receive treatment find it easier to enter public places and the improvement lasts for years – Unfortunately, improvements are often partial, rather than complete, and relapses are common Social Anxiety Disorder • Severe, persistent, and irrational anxiety about social or performance situations in which scrutiny by others and embarrassment may occur – May be NARROW – talking, performing, eating, or writing in public – May be BROAD – general fear of functioning poorly in front of others – In BOTH FORMS, people judge themselves as performing less competently than they actually do Social Anxiety Disorder • This disorder can greatly interfere with one’s life – Surveys reveal that 7.1% of people in the U.S. (60% of them female) experience a social anxiety disorder in any given year – The disorder often begins in childhood and may continue into adulthood – Research finds the poor people are 50% more likely than wealthier people to experience social anxiety disorder – There also are some indications of racial/ethnic differences Profile of Anxiety Disorders and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder What Causes Social Anxiety Disorder? • The leading explanation proposed by cognitive theorists and researchers – People with this disorder hold a group of social beliefs and expectations that consistently work again them: • Unrealistically high social standards • Views of themselves as unattractive and socially unskilled • Belief that inept behavior will inevitably end in terrible consequences • Feelings that they have no control over anxious feelings in social settings Treatments for Social Anxiety Disorder • Only in the past 15 years have clinicians been able to treat social anxiety disorder successfully • Two components must be addressed: • Overwhelming social fear – Address fears behaviorally with exposure • Lack of social skills – Social skills and assertiveness trainings have proved helpful Treatments for Social Anxiety Disorder • How can social fears be reduced? • Unlike specific phobias, social fears are often reduced through MEDICATION (particularly antidepressants) • Several types of PSYCHOTHERAPY have proved at least as effective as medication • People treated with psychotherapy are less likely to relapse than people treated with drugs alone • One psychological approach is EXPOSURE THERAPY, either in an individual or group setting • COGNITIVE THERAPIES have also been widely used How Can Social Skills Be Improved? • SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING – Involves combination of several behavioral techniques – Is also used to help people improve their social functioning – Includes therapist-provided feedback and reinforcement – Allow clients to practice their skills with other group members (ASSERTIVENESS TRAINING GROUPS) Panic Disorder • The attacks feature at least four of the following symptoms of panic: palpitations of the heart, tingling in the hands or feet, shortness of breath, sweating, hot and cold flashes, trembling, chest pains, choking sensations, faintness, dizziness, nausea, a feeling of unreality, fear of losing control, and fear of dying (APA, 2013, 2012) Panic Disorder PANIC • Extreme anxiety reaction, can result when a real threat suddenly emerges PANIC ATTACKS PANIC DISORDER • Periodic, short bouts of panic that occur suddenly, reach a peak within 10 minutes, and gradually pass (APA, 2013, 2012) • More than onequarter of all people have one or more panic attacks at some point in their lives • Repeated and unexpected panic attacks with apparent reason; maladaptive thinking or behavior • Around 2.8 percent of all people in the United States suffer from panic disorder in a given year; close to 5 percent develop it at some point in their lives (Kessler et al., 2010, 2009, 2005). Panic Disorder • Disorder characteristics • Has same prevalence across various cultures and racial groups; attack features may differ • Tends to develop in late adolescence and early adulthood • Is twice as likely to occur in women than men • Is 50% more likely to appear in poor people than wealthier people • Is often accompanied by agoraphobia Panic Disorder: The Biological Perspective • Researchers theorized panic disorder was related to abnormal norepinephrine activity – NOREPINEPHRINE: Neurotransmitter whose abnormal activity is linked to panic disorder and depression • Animal research reveals panic reactions may be related to increases in norepinephrine activity in the locus ceruleus – LOCUS CERULEUS: Small area of the brain that seems to be active in the regulation of emotions; many of its neurons use norepinephrine • Similar findings occurred in studies with humans who were injected with norepinephrine-stimulating chemicals The Biology of Panic • Newer research suggests that the root of panic attacks is more complicated than single neurotransmitter or single brain area • Research conducted in recent years has examined brain circuits and the amygdala as the more complex root of the problem • There may be a predisposition to abnormalities in these areas Panic Disorder: The Biological Perspective • If a genetic factor is at work, close relatives should have higher rates of panic disorder than more distant relatives – and they do – Among monozygotic (MZ, or identical) twins, the rate is as high as 31% – Among dizygotic (DZ, or fraternal) twins, the rate is only 11% Panic Disorder: The Biological Perspective • Drug therapies • Antidepressants are effective at preventing or reducing panic attacks • Function at norepinephrine receptors in the panic brain circuit • Bring at least some improvement to 80% of patients with panic disorder • Improvements require maintenance of drug therapy • Some benzodiazepines (especially Xanax [alprazolam]) have also proved helpful • They seem to indirectly affect the activity of norepinephrine Panic Disorder: The Cognitive Perspective • Cognitive theorists believe panic prone people have a high degree of ANXIETY SENSITIVITY – Tendency to focus on one’s bodily sensations, assess them illogically, and interpret them as harmful • BIOLOGICAL CHALLENGE TESTS used to produce hyperventilation or other biological sensations – Procedure used to produce panic in participants or clients by having them exercise vigorously or perform some other potentially panic-inducing task – Individuals with panic disorder typically have higher anxiety scores than other people do PANIC: EVERYONE IS VULNERABLE People with panic disorder are not the only ones to experience panic. Many people panic when faced with a threat that unfolds very rapidly. On February 17, 2003, a security guard used pepper spray to break up a fight in a trendy Chicago nightclub. The fumes caused a panic which increased as fleeing clubbers found the rear doors of the E2 club were chained shut, About 150 people where injured and 21 people were crushed to death. What action would you have taken in this situation? Would you panic? Panic Disorder: The Cognitive Perspective • COGNITIVE THERAPY: Tries to correct people’s misinterpretations of their bodily sensations (Clark, Beck, and others) • Steps – Step 1: Educate clients – Step 2: Teach clients to apply more accurate interpretations (especially when stressed) – Step 3: Teach clients skills for coping with anxiety • Cognitive therapy: May use BIOLOGICAL CHALLENGE PROCEDURES – Used to produce panic in participants or clients by having them exercise vigorously or perform some other potentially panic-inducing task in presence of researcher or therapist Panic Disorder: The Cognitive Perspective • Cognitive treatments often help people with panic disorder • Around 80% of treated patients are panic-free for two years compared with 13% of control subjects • At least as helpful as antidepressants • Combination therapy may be most effective • Still under investigation Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder • OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER: Person has recurrent and unwanted thoughts, a drive to perform repetitive and rigid actions, or both • OBSESSIONS: Persistent thought, urge, or image that is experienced repeatedly, feels intrusive, and causes anxiety • COMPULSIONS: Repetitive and rigid behaviors or mental acts that people feel they must perform to prevent or reduce anxiety Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder According to DSM-5, diagnosis is called for when symptoms • Feel excessive or unreasonable • Cause great distress • Take up much time • Interfere with daily functions Several additional disorders • Are closely related to obsessive-compulsive disorder in their features, causes, and treatment responsiveness, and so DSM-5 has grouped them together with obsessive-compulsive disorder (APA, 2013, 2012) Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Normal routines • Most people find it comforting to follow set routines when they carry out everyday activities, and, in fact, 40 percent become irritated if they must depart from their routines. (Adapted from Kanner, 2005, 1998, 1995). Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder • Prevalence • Between 1% and 2% of U.S. population suffer from OCD in a given year; as many as 3% over a lifetime • It is equally common in men and women and among different racial and ethnic groups • It is estimated that more than 40% of those with OCD seek treatment What Are the Features of Obsessions and Compulsions? • Obsessions – Thoughts that feel both intrusive and foreign – Attempts to ignore or resist them trigger anxiety – Have common themes • Examples: Dirt/contamination, violence and aggression, orderliness, religion, sexuality What Are the Features of Obsessions and Compulsions? • Compulsions – “Voluntary” behaviors or mental acts feel mandatory/unstoppable – Most recognize that their behaviors are unreasonable – Performing behaviors reduces anxiety — only for a short time! – Behaviors often develop into rituals – Have common forms/themes: • Examples: Cleaning, checking, order or balance, touching, verbal, and/or counting Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder • In recent decades, researchers have begun to learn more about OCD • Most influential explanations are from the psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and biological models OCD: The Psychodynamic Perspective • Anxiety disorders develop when children fear their id impulses and use ego defense mechanisms to lessen their anxiety • OCD differs from other anxiety disorders in that the “battle” is not unconscious; it is played out in overt thoughts and actions – Id impulses = obsessive thoughts – Ego defenses = counter-thoughts or compulsive actions • Freud believed that OCD was related to the anal stage of development – Period of intense conflict between id and ego – Not all psychodynamic theorists agree OCD: The Psychodynamic Perspective • Overall, research has not supported the psychodynamic explanation • Psychodynamic therapies – Goals are to uncover and overcome underlying conflicts and defenses – Main techniques are free association and interpretation – Research has offered little evidence – Some therapists now prefer to treat these patients with short-term psychodynamic therapies OCD: The Behavioral Perspective • Behaviorists – Behaviorists have concentrated on explaining and treating compulsions rather than obsessions – They propose that people happen upon their compulsions quite randomly • Stanley Rachman and colleagues – Compulsions do appear to be rewarded by an eventual decrease in anxiety OCD: The Behavioral Perspective • Behavioral therapy • EXPOSURE AND RESPONSE PREVENTION (ERP) • Behavioral treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder that exposes a client to anxiety-arousing thoughts or situations and then prevents the client from performing his or her compulsive acts • Also called exposure and ritual prevention OCD: The Cognitive Perspective • Cognitive theorists – Point out that everyone has repetitive, unwanted, and intrusive thoughts – Suggest that people with OCD blame themselves for normal (although repetitive and intrusive) thoughts and expect that terrible things will happen as a result OCD: The Cognitive Perspective • To avoid negative outcomes • People attempt to “NEUTRALIZE” their thoughts with actions (or other thoughts) • When a neutralizing action reduces anxiety, it is reinforced – Client becomes more convinced that the thoughts are dangerous – As fear of thoughts increases, the number of thoughts increases OCD: The Cognitive Perspective • If everyone has intrusive thoughts, why do only some people develop OCD? • People with OCD tend to: – Have exceptionally high standards of conduct and morality – Believe thoughts are equal to actions and are capable of bringing harm – Believe that they can, and should, have perfect control over their thoughts and behaviors OCD: The Cognitive Perspective • Cognitive therapists focus on the cognitive processes that help to produce and maintain obsessive thoughts and compulsive acts • Therapy may include – Psychoeducation – Guiding the client to identify, challenge, and change distorted cognitions • Research suggests that a combination of the cognitive and behavioral models is often more effective than either intervention alone OCD: The Biological Perspective • Two lines of research provide evidence for the key role of biological factors • Abnormal SEROTONIN activity • Evidence that serotonin-based antidepressants reduce OCD symptoms; recent studies have suggested other neurotransmitters also may play important roles • Abnormal brain structure and functioning • OCD linked to ORBITOFRONTAL CORTEX and CAUDATE NUCLEI • Frontal cortex and caudate nuclei compose brain circuit that converts sensory information into thoughts and actions • Either area may be too active, letting through troublesome thoughts and actions The Biology of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder • Brain structures that have been linked to obsessive-compulsive disorder include the orbitofrontal cortex, caudate nucleus, thalamus, amygdala, and cingulate cortex. The structures may be too active in people with the disorder OCD: The Biological Perspective • Some research provides evidence that these two lines may be connected – SEROTONIN (with other neurotransmitters) plays a key role in the operation of the orbitofrontal cortex and the caudate nuclei – Abnormal neurotransmitter activity could be contributing to the improper functioning of the circuit OCD: The Biological Perspective • Biological therapies – Serotonin-based antidepressants • Bring improvement to 50–80% of those with OCD • Relapse occurs if medication is stopped – Research suggests that combination therapy (medication + cognitive behavioral therapy approaches) may be most effective Obsessive-Compulsive-Related Disorders • In recent years, a growing number of clinical researchers have linked some excessive behavior patterns (e.g., hoarding, hair pulling, shopping, sex) to OCD – DSM-5 has created the group name “ObsessiveCompulsive-Related Disorders” and assigned four patterns to that group: hoarding disorder, hair-pulling disorder, skin-picking disorder, and body dysmorphic disorder – With their addition to the DSM, it is hoped that they will be better researched, understood, and treated Obsessive-Compulsive-Related Disorders Obsessive-compulsiverelated disorders • Group of disorders in which obsessive-like concerns drive people to repeatedly and excessively perform specific pattern Body dysmorphic disorder • Disorder in which individuals become preoccupied with the belief that they have certain defects or flaws in their physical appearance • Perceived defects or flaws are imagined or greatly exaggerated Putting It…together • DIATHESIS-STRESS IN ACTION • Theoretical view of generalized anxiety disorder • Certain individuals have biological vulnerability toward disorder – Precipitated by psychological and sociocultural factors • Treatment – Integration of models – Stress management programs Brain Salt, a patent medicine used in early the twentieth century for anxiety and related difficulties, promised to cure nervous disability, headaches, indigestion, heart palpitations, and sleep problems. What Do You Think? Clinical Assessment: How and Why Does the Client Behave Abnormally? • ASSESSMENT involves the collection of relevant information in an effort to reach a conclusion – CLINICAL ASSESSMENT is used to determine how and why a person is behaving abnormally and how that person may be helped • The focus is IDIOGRAPHIC, that is, on an individual person • It also may be used to evaluate treatment progress Clinical Assessment: How and Why Does the Client Behave Abnormally? • Hundreds of clinical assessment tools have been developed and fall into three categories – Clinical interviews – Tests – Observations Characteristics of Assessment Tools • To be useful, assessment tools must be standardized and have clear reliability and validity – To STANDARDIZE a technique is to set up common steps to be followed whenever it is administered – One must standardize administration, scoring, and interpretation Characteristics of Assessment Tools • RELIABILITY refers to the consistency of an assessment measure – A good tool will always yield the same results in the same situation • Two main types – TEST–RETEST RELIABILITY – yields the same results every time it is given to the same people – INTERRATER RELIABILITY – different judges independently agree on how to score and interpret a particular tool Characteristics of Assessment Tools • VALIDITY refers to the accuracy of a tool’s results – A good assessment tool must accurately measure what it is supposed to measure – Three specific types • FACE VALIDITY – a tool appears to measure what it is supposed to measure; does not necessarily indicate true validity • PREDICTIVE VALIDITY – a tool accurately predicts future characteristics or behavior • CONCURRENT VALIDITY – a tool’s results agree with independent measures assessing similar characteristics or behavior Clinical Interviews • These face-to-face encounters often are the first contact between a client and a clinician/assessor – Used to collect detailed information, especially personal history, about a client • Allow the interviewer to focus on whatever topics they consider most important – Focus depends on theoretical orientation Clinical Interviews • Conducting the interview – Can be either unstructured or structured • In an UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW, clinicians ask open-ended questions • In a STRUCTURED INTERVIEW, clinicians ask prepared questions, often from a published interview schedule – May include a MENTAL STATUS EXAM – a set of interview questions and observations designed to reveal the degree and nature of a client’s abnormal functioning Clinical Interviews • Limitations – May lack validity or accuracy • Individuals may be intentionally misleading – Interviewers may be biased or may make mistakes in judgment – Interviews, particularly unstructured ones, may lack reliability Clinical Tests • TESTS are devices for gathering information about a few aspects of a person’s psychological functioning, from which broader information can be inferred • More than 500 clinical tests are currently in use – They fall into six categories Clinical Tests • More than 500 clinical tests that fall into six categories are currently in use • Categories 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Projective tests Personality inventories Response inventories Psychophysiological tests Neurological and neuropsychological tests Intelligence tests Clinical Tests 1. PROJECTIVE TESTS – – – Require that clients interpret vague or ambiguous stimuli or follow open-ended instruction Are used primarily by psychodynamic clinicians Most popular • • • • Rorschach Test Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Sentence completion test Drawings Clinic